Persecution was a fact of life during the first three centuries of the ekklesia, although the extent and severity of official state persecution was probably exaggerated by later writers. Most persecutions were sporadic and localized, but they still contributed significantly to growth because of the many accounts of Christian bravery in the face of death. The word martyr, in fact, is derived from the Greek word martus, which means “witness.”

Persecution started, as everything does, with Jesus, and according to tradition, 12 of the 13 Apostles suffered violent deaths, although only the execution of James is recorded in the Bible (Acts 12:1-2). Only John lived to die of old age. The writings of the early church also describe the martyrdom of Stephen (Acts 7:50-60), Mark, James, Jude, Luke, and Barnabus, as well as scores of lesser known early Christians. In addition to executions, there were hundreds of lesser punishments, including beatings and jailings. Most of the persecutions described in Scripture are blamed on Jewish leaders, who viewed the followers of Jesus as blasphemous and whose positions of power were threatened by the Gospel message. Until the second century, Roman officials generally considered Christianity as a Jewish sect and were unwilling to settle what they viewed as internal disputes (see, for example, Acts 19).

The earliest recorded persecution of Christians came after the Great Fire of Rome in AD 64 during the reign of the Emperor Nero. The account of Nero’s actions, written 40-50 years later by the historian Claudius Tacitus (ca. 56-120), reveals the Roman attitude toward Christians early in the second century.

"But all human efforts, all the lavish gifts of the emperor, and the propitiations of the gods, did not banish the sinister belief that the conflagration was the result of an order. Consequently, to get rid of the report, Nero fastened the guilt and inflicted the most exquisite tortures on a class hated for their abominations, called Christians by the populace. Christus, from whom the name had its origin, suffered the extreme penalty during the reign of Tiberius at the hands of one of our procurators, Pontius Pilatus, and a most mischievous superstition, thus checked for the moment, again broke out not only in Judaea, the first source of the evil, but even in Rome, where all things hideous and shameful from every part of the world find their centre and become popular. Accordingly, an arrest was first made of all who pleaded guilty; then, upon their information, an immense multitude was convicted, not so much of the crime of firing the city, as of hatred against mankind. Mockery of every sort was added to their deaths. Covered with the skins of beasts, they were torn by dogs and perished, or were nailed to crosses, or were doomed to the flames and burnt, to serve as a nightly illumination, when daylight had expired.
Nero offered his gardens for the spectacle, and was exhibiting a show in the circus, while he mingled with the people in the dress of a charioteer or stood aloft on a car. Hence, even for criminals who deserved extreme and exemplary punishment, there arose a feeling of compassion; for it was not, as it seemed, for the public good, but to glut one man's cruelty, that they were being destroyed." (The Annals, translated by Alfred John Church and William Jackson Brodribb)

The number of believers who suffered these cruel deaths was probably very small, despite Tacitus’ claim of an “immense multitude,” but the passage tells us a number of things:
1. Apparently, some Christians confessed (whether of starting the fire, celebrating it, or merely of being Christians is not clear) and turned in some of their brothers and sisters, the first known instance of traditores.
2. Tacitus matter-of-factly refers to Christianity as “a most mischievous superstition,” “hideous and shameful,” haters of mankind, “abmoninations,” and “criminals.”
3. The tortures they endured elicited at least some sympathy among citizens (probably Nero’s opponents).

Equally instructive about how routine historians considered Christian persecutions is the brief mention by a second Roman, Gaius Suetonius Tranquilla (76-138):

"During [Nero’s] reign many abuses were severely punished and put down, and no fewer new laws were made: a limit was set to expenditures; the public banquets were confined to a distribution of food, the sale of any kind of cooked viands in the taverns was forbidden, with the exception of pulse and vegetables, whereas before every sort of dainty was exposed for sale. Punishment was inflicted on the Christians, a class of men given to a new and mischievous superstition. He put an end to the diversions of the chariot drivers, who from immunity of long standing claimed the right of ranging at large and amusing themselves by cheating and robbing the people." (Lives of the Caesars, Translated by J. C. Rolfe)

At about the same time Tacitus and Suetonius wrote their histories, Pliny the Younger served as governor of Pontus and Bithynia (northwestern Turkey) and encountered Christians. Unfamiliar with the “proper” way to deal with them, he sought the advice of Emperor Trajan:

"Pliny the Younger to the Emperor Trajan
It is my practice, my lord, to refer to you all matters concerning which I am in doubt. For who can better give guidance to my hesitation or inform my ignorance? I have never participated in trials of Christians. I therefore do not know what offenses it is the practice to punish or investigate, and to what extent. And I have been not a little hesitant as to whether there should be any distinction on account of age or no difference between the very young and the more mature; whether pardon is to be granted for repentance, or, if a man has once been a Christian, it does him no good to have ceased to be one; whether the name itself, even without offenses, or only the offenses associated with the name are to be punished.
Meanwhile, in the case of those who were denounced to me as Christians, I have observed the following procedure: I interrogated these as to whether they were Christians; those who confessed I interrogated a second and a third time, threatening them with punishment; those who persisted I ordered executed. For I had no doubt that, whatever the nature of their creed, stubbornness and inflexible obstinacy surely deserve to be punished. There were others possessed of the same folly; but because they were Roman citizens, I signed an order for them to be transferred to Rome.
Soon accusations spread, as usually happens, because of the proceedings going on, and several incidents occurred. An anonymous document was published containing the names of many persons. Those who denied that they were or had been Christians, when they invoked the gods in words dictated by me, offered prayer with incense and wine to your image, which I had ordered to be brought for this purpose together with statues of the gods, and moreover cursed Christ--none of which those who are really Christians, it is said, can be forced to do--these I thought should be discharged. Others named by the informer declared that they were Christians, but then denied it, asserting that they had been but had ceased to be, some three years before, others many years, some as much as twenty-five years. They all worshipped your image and the statues of the gods, and cursed Christ.
They asserted, however, that the sum and substance of their fault or error had been that they were accustomed to meet on a fixed day before dawn and sing responsively a hymn to Christ as to a god, and to bind themselves by oath, not to some crime, but not to commit fraud, theft, or adultery, not falsify their trust, nor to refuse to return a trust when called upon to do so. When this was over, it was their custom to depart and to assemble again to partake of food--but ordinary and innocent food. Even this, they affirmed, they had ceased to do after my edict by which, in accordance with your instructions, I had forbidden political associations. Accordingly, I judged it all the more necessary to find out what the truth was by torturing two female slaves who were called deaconesses. But I discovered nothing else but depraved, excessive superstition.
I therefore postponed the investigation and hastened to consult you. For the matter seemed to me to warrant consulting you, especially because of the number involved. For many persons of every age, every rank, and also of both sexes are and will be endangered. For the contagion of this superstition has spread not only to the cities but also to the villages and farms. But it seems possible to check and cure it. It is certainly quite clear that the temples, which had been almost deserted, have begun to be frequented, that the established religious rites, long neglected, are being resumed, and that from everywhere sacrificial animals are coming, for which until now very few purchasers could be found. Hence it is easy to imagine what a multitude of people can be reformed if an opportunity for repentance is afforded.
Trajan to Pliny the Younger
You observed proper procedure, my dear Pliny, in sifting the cases of those who had been denounced to you as Christians. For it is not possible to lay down any general rule to serve as a kind of fixed standard. They are not to be sought out; if they are denounced and proved guilty, they are to be punished, with this reservation, that whoever denies that he is a Christian and really proves it--that is, by worshiping our gods--even though he was under suspicion in the past, shall obtain pardon through repentance. But anonymously posted accusations ought to have no place in any prosecution. For this is both a dangerous kind of precedent and out of keeping with the spirit of our age."
(Letters 10.96-97)

Trajan’s response indicates that he not interested in wiping out Christians, but in checking the spread of a potential threat to the Empire. He and Pliny obviously view Christians as misguided people who need rehabilitation.

Only two religions were legal in the Roman Empire: the traditional religion of paganism, family gods, and emperor worship and Judaism, which was tolerated because of its roots in antiquity, which explains why many early Christian apologists sought to connect Christianity with Judaism. While not universal, the Roman attitude toward Christianity often included some of these elements:
* Because Christians did not worship the Roman gods, they were considered atheists.
* Because they did not observe Roman holidays, they were considered anti-social.
* Because they often met secretly at night, they were considered seditious.
* Because Christianity was founded recently, it was considered a new superstition.
* Because of Roman misunderstanding of agape and the use of the terms “brother” and “sister,” they were considered incestuous.
* Because of Roman misunderstanding of the Eucharist (Lord’s Supper), they were considered cannibals.
Given these attitudes and misunderstandings, it’s not hard to understand why Christians were persecuted. There are ten traditional periods of persecution (1):
1. Nero
2. Domitian (81-96) – banished the Apostle John to Patmos
3. Trajan (98-117)
4. Marcus Aurelius (161-180) – Justin Martyr, probably the most prominent Christian apologist of his day, was beheaded at Rome during this time.
5. Septimius Severus (193-211) – forbade conversion to Christianity in 202
6. Maximus Thrax (235-238)
7. Decius (249-251)
8. Valerian (253-260)
9. Aurelian (270-275)
10. Diocletian (284-305)

Most of these persecutions were sporadic and localized. It was not until Decius that the first large-scale, systematic persecution aimed at wiping out Christianity was undertaken. Additional pogroms began in 257 and 303 (under Diocletian, the largest of the persecutions, that ended with the conversion of then-Emperor Constantine).

Of course, Jesus told His followers to expect persecution (Matthew 10:16-23; Mark 4:17; 13:9; John 15:20; 16:2) and many of the New Testament writers wrote to encourage believers who were experiencing persecution (see 1 Peter 3:13-18; 4:12-19; 5:6-14; Hebrews 10:32-39; 12:3; Revelation 2-3, for example). Advice to those facing persecution included rejoicing (James 1:2), prayer (Matthew 5:44, Romans 12:14, 1 Corinthians 4:12), and flight (Matthew 10:23). The overriding Christian attitude toward persecution was to consider it a test of faith and an opportunity to endure and hence “earn” rewards:

“Blessed are those who have been persecuted for the sake of righteousness, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven. Blessed are you when people insult you and persecute you, and falsely say all kinds of evil against you because of Me. Rejoice and be glad, for your reward in heaven is great; for in the same way they persecuted the prophets who were before you." (Matthew 5:10-12, a portion of the Beatitudes)

While there are numerous examples of endurance and courage (Stephen, Paul, Polycarp, Ignatius, Perpetua and Felicitas, etc.). Accounts of martyrs (stylized and often undoubtedly exaggerated) became a major literary form in the early church, and they served as encouragement and examples to other believers. We know that the stoning of Stephen led to a scattering of believers which led to geographic expansion and growth of the church, including the founding of the great missionary church in Antioch (Acts 11:19-24). Other courageous responses to persecution surely led to similar growth. Tertullian (145-220), in his Apology to the Roman elite, defiantly wrote, “The oftener we are mown down by you, the more in number we grow; the blood of Christians is seed.” (Apology 50, The Early Church Fathers: Ante-Nicene Fathers, Vol. 3, Electronic Edition STEP Files Copyright © 1998, Parsons Technology, Inc., Hiawatha, Iowa.)

But not all Christians met the challenge. Particularly during the large persecutions of 250, 257, and 303, believers responded in a variety of ways:
* Martyrs – those who died for their faith and served as witnesses (martus)
* Confessors – those who refused to recant and suffered punishment
* Runners – those who fled to escape punishment.
* Lapsed – those who denied Jesus and, in some cases, offered sacrifices to Roman gods to avoid punishment
* Libellatici (certificateer) – those who bribed officials and purchased official certificates exonerating them of the crime of being Christian.
* Traditores (traitors) – those who not only denied Jesus, but also turned in others and handed over copies of scriptures.

The Lapsed presented a particular problem after the persecutions ended and they sought to be restored to the ekklesia. Hardliners (Donatists) insisted that lapsed clergy had forfeited their offices. Other, more pragmatic leaders perhaps, allowed restoration following long, public confession and penitence. The restoration of the lapsed represented an opportunity for the hierarchical church as bishops and councils exerted authority over local leaders, prescribing the proper procedures and penitential behavior. This was particularly the case of Cyprian, bishop of Carthage in 248 (just two years after his conversion!). Cyprian himself fled the early stages of the Decian persecution of 250, so he was certainly disposed toward accommodation:

"You have judged quite correctly about granting peace to our brethren, which they, by true penitence and by the glory of a confession of the Lord, have restored to themselves, being justified by their words, by which before they had condemned themselves. Since, then, they have washed away all their sin, and their former stain, by the help of the Lord, has been done away by a more powerful virtue, they ought not to lie any longer under the power of the devil, as it were, prostrate; when, being banished and deprived of all their property, they have lifted themselves up and have begun to stand with Christ." (Epistle XIX.—Cyprian Replies to Caldonius, The Early Church Fathers: Ante-Nicene Fathers, Vol. 5. Electronic Edition STEP Files Copyright © 1998, Parsons Technology, Inc., Hiawatha, Iowa.)

In perhaps the first use of indulgences, Confessors, thought to have extraordinary intermediary access to God, began offering (perhaps selling) certificates (of forgiveness) to some of the Lapsed. Cyprian, while carefully praising the Confessors, opposed any restoration without proper penitence and episcopal (bishop) approval.

¹ Austin, Bill R., Austin’s Topical History of Christianity, Tyndale House Publishers, Wheaton, IL, 1983

After the conversion of Constantine and the adoption of Christianity as the state religion, a polluted Church turned from persecuted to persecutors despite significant biblical prohibitions against the use of force (see for example, Luke 9:51-56). The Catholic Church persecuted the Reformers, and the Reformers persecuted the Anabaptists.

We Americans have little opportunity to face martyrdom, but more subtle and insidious persecution is certainly on the rise. The exclusive claims of the Gospel present a serious challenge in our politically correct post-modern age, and Christians are accused (sometimes justifiably) of intolerance and bigotry. The term “born-again Christian” (a redundancy, by the way) is often used pejoratively. Evangelism is often considered religious abuse. The No-Establishment” clause of the Bill of Rights has been increasingly misinterpreted as protecting the state from religious influence rather than protecting religious expression from the state as the founding fathers obviously intended. Don’t be surprised if new, more restrictive laws and judicial decisions surface in the future. Somehow our age of tolerance doesn’t apply to evangelical Christianity.

But despite the problems we face from nonbelievers, the most common expressions of persecution come from within. Protestants persecute Catholics, liberals persecute conservatives and vice versa. These internal persecutions are not the kind of trials to be considered pure joy (James 1:2), they are prohibited judgments (see Romans 14:4; James 4:11,12)..
They do more damage to the ekklesia than any external actions can ever accomplish.

Persecutions very much like those faced in the first three centuries of the ekklesia are nonetheless evident today—not in America, but in many countries around the world. Posted at persecution.org, the website of International Christian Concern, in just the past two months are incidents of severe persecution of Christians in India, Eritrea, Azerbaijan, Senegal, Sudan, Egypt, Turkmenistan, Saudi Arabia, Sri Lanka, China, Indonesia, Malaysia Nepal, Nigeria, North Korea, Pakistan, Vietnam, Laos, Georgia, and Brazil. Perhaps this explains why the ekklesia is growing rapidly in placing like Africa and China, while it is declining in the West.

We Westerners may wonder academically how we would respond if we faced the kinds of severe tests the early church did, but our brothers and sisters around the world don’t have to wonder. How would we comfortable Westerners face the kind of persecutions the early church and our modern counterparts do?

Three websites about Christian persecution today:
http://www.persecution.org/ (International Christian Concern)
http://www.jesusjournal.com/articles/publish/persecutionwatch.html (Jesus Journal)
http://www.worthynews.com/persecution.htm

John from Kansas added this postscript to the Persecution issue of ET&N:
Thank you for the message on persecution. I would add that the problem of the persecuted becoming the persecutors had as much if not more to do with Constantine's successor, Theodosius (sp?) who took it a step further than Constantine by making Christianity the ONLY legal religion in the empire.
The letters to the seven churches are interesting in light of this issue. I think it was the church in Sardis that the text had nothing good to say about for the church as a whole (but there were a "few" who didn't soil their garments. Unlike most of the other churches, there was no mention of persecution or pressure to conform to pagan practices. With no resistance, the church's spiritual strength had atrophied. So, there wasn't a lack of challenge, but a more subtle challenge. This is the same challenge that we are facing here in America. Like Sardis, we have the reputation, but we are dead. We need to strengthen what is about to die.

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Unless otherwise noted, all biblical citations are from the New American Standard Bible (NASB)