Number LIII | XXIV May 24 MMV

Cities of the New Testament: Rome

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This is the fifth in a series of articles about cities of the New Testament. Each issue explores the history and culture of the city, the social and religious context, and suggestions for lessons that city may have for Christians today. Earlier editions explored Corinth (ET&N 23), Ephesus (ET&N 28), Laodicea (ET&N 33), and Antioch (ET&N 40). Future plans for this on-going occasional series include Thyatira, Tarsus, Jerusalem, Berea, and Alexandria.

In this issue, we'll look at arguably the greatest city of the ancient world and the hub of arguably the greatest empire in history. Colored by media images of gladiators, military conquests, orgies, and imperial excesses, our impression of ancient Rome is usually that of a violent, materialistic, decadent, hedonistic society (which may sound familiar). How did the ekklesia come to exert such a powerful influence that Rome became and still is the spiritual center for millions of Christians?

It would be impossible in this relatively short space to describe all the accomplishments and excesses of Rome and its Empire, but there are three aspects of Rome that stand out among the rest in terms of their impact on seminal Christianity: Pax Romana, slavery, and entertainment—these will be the focus of this issue of ET&N.

City and Empire

The era of the early Roman Empire is sometimes considered the greatest single period of peace and stability in the history of Mankind. This Pax Romana (Roman peace) extended from the rise to absolute power of Augustus (Octavian) in 27 B.C. until the death of Marcus Aurelius in A.D. 180. On March 55, 44 B.C., Julius Caesar had been assassinated by several members of the Senate, a month after declaring himself sole ruler of the Roman world. Marc Antony, Lepidus, and Octavian formed a triumvirate seeking to punish Caesar's killers. Following the deaths of Brutus, Cassius, and Cicero, the triumvirate disintegrated, and Octavian emerged as the winner following his defeat of Antony at the Battle of Actium.
Surprisingly, since they had opposed Julius Caesar's tyranny, the Senate accepted Octavian's (who gave himself the name Augustus Caesar) new claim to sole power. Augustus maintained the Senate but eliminated most of its power, putting a final end to the Roman Republic and ushering in the Roman Empire.

The next 200 years were a period of relative peace and prosperity for Rome, but the succession of emperors was anything but peaceful. Of the first seven successors to Augusta (Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, Nero, Galba, Otho, and Vitellis), only Otho escaped assassination, and he did so by committing suicide. The emperor-worship that emerged with Augustus did nothing to dissuade ambitious or jealous pretenders. Statues and busts of the emperor-gods were evident throughout the city (Nero even insisted that his likeness be placed in Jewish synagogues), but it was an easy matter to take them down and replace them with the next divine leader.

Tiberius 14-37 www.bibleplaces.com	Caligula 37-41 Palazzo Massimo	Claudius 41-54 www.bibleplaces.com	Nero 54-68* www.bibleplaces.com	Vespasian 69-79 Museo della Civilta	Titus 79-81 Vatican Museums
Domitian 81-96 Museo Arqueológico	Nerva 96-98 Vatican Museums	Trajan 98-117 Museo della Civilta	Hadrian 117-138 Capitoline Museums	Antonius Pius 138-161 Capitoline Museums	Marcus Aurelius 161-180 Capitoline Museums
* Note: Following the death of Nero, a period of chaos ensued during which three emperors - Galba, Otho, and Vitellius - reigned until Vespasian consolidated control.

Beginning with the conquest of Carthage in the Second Punic War (218-202 BC), Rome inexorably extended its sphere of control. By the time of Augustus (27 BC-AD 14), Rome had conquered most of the Mediterranean world, and the Empire reached is largest extent under Trajan (98-117).

Pirates had been swept from the Mediterranean sea by Pompey in 67 BC, and nearly 50,000 of paved roads, many still existing, crisscrossed the Empire. Romans built hundreds of bridges over major rivers. It was said that the Greeks forever discussed the design of the perfect bridge until the Romans built ones that carried the army of conquest. As one considers the boundaries of the Roman Empire, it is striking that this is, by and large, the same area into which Christianity quickly spread, although there are certainly reports (perhaps legendary) of missionary efforts in such far-flung areas as India and China.

In fact, it was precisely the Pax Romana that made the rapid spread

of Christianity possible. The kinds of travels conducted by Paul and others would have been virtually impossible just 150 years earlier. Before Pompey largely rid the Mediterranean of pirates, sea travel was treacherous. Before the construction and relative protection of the Roman roads, land travel between cities was arduous as well as dangerous. Most people today would be surprised at the extent of travel among the privileged classes of Romans—trips to view the wonders of the Mediterranean world were relatively commonplace for those who could afford the time and expense. For some families, such excursions were considered essential to a young man's education.
Furthermore, the Roman world of the first century enjoyed a virtually universal language in Greek and later, Latin. With the pervasiveness of Roman influence over society, few inhabitants would not possess at least passable Greek, the primary language of the New Testament. The miraculous events of the Day of Pentecost (Acts 2), where hearers understood the apostles in their native languages, served as proof of the power of God but a repetition of that miracle was largely unnecessary as the Gospel spread throughout the Empire.

In his letter to the Roman church, Paul wrote "For while we were still helpless, at the right time (Greek, kairos = season, time) Christ died for the ungodly" (5:6). For Paul, it was the "right time" for him and those who would put their faith in Jesus, and from an historical perspective, it was really the first opportunity.

Just 350 years after the close of the New Testament era, the decay in the Roman Empire was evident. With Attila the Hun encroaching from the east, the Ostrogoths in the Balkans, the Franks in the north, the Brittons in northwestern Gaul, and the Vandals in Africa, the hegemony of Rome was permanently broken, travel again became treacherous, and except in the church itself, the universality of Latin crumbled. The western world descended into the Dark Ages, but the seeds of God's message had been firmly planted.

Some point to Constantine's conversion to Christianity in 312 and the adoption of Christianity as the state religion in 381 by Emperor Theodosius IX as the triumph of Christianity, but in a very real sense, those events seriously contaminated the original design and intent of the church. State coercion led to a church composed more of nominal adherents than dedicated disciples.

Romans conquests provided the spoils of war, including thousands of slaves imported from defeated nations. In the Republic and the very early days of the Empire, slave ships arrived constantly at the Roman port of Ostia, and the slave market teemed with activity. As Rome quickly subdued its outer provinces, fewer imported slaves were available as replacements and the supply came more from slave reproduction, the sale and abandonment of children, kidnapping, and voluntary bondage.

Rome was the first city to reach a population of 1,000,000 inhabitants (in about 5 B.C.), and it would be another 18 centuries before any other city would reach that figure. Rome was a city with sharp distinctions in social class: slaves, freedman and women (former slaves), and citizens. By the late first century, the slave population of Rome is estimated at between 33 and 50 percent of the inhabitants, so large a group that some citizens expressed concerns about slave rebellions, which had in fact occurred (most notably, the one led by Spartacus), but not in the capital itself. Furthermore, a good slave was a substantial investment in terms of both purchase and ongoing expense. Consequently, laws and an increasing public sympathy led not to freedom but at least to generally humane treatment. In fact, the lives of slaves were often more comfortable than those of the urban freed class.

Its prevalence throughout the Roman Empire made slavery a very tangible image in the early church. Jesus and the New Testament writers frequently referred to slaves, either as a fact of first century society or as a symbol, such as Jesus' description of the freedom available through Him: "Truly, truly, I say to you, everyone who commits sin is the slave [Greek, doulos] of sin. The slave does not remain in the house forever; the son does remain forever. So if the Son makes you free, you will be free indeed" (John 8:34-36). A slave could be so either involuntarily or by choice (a bond-servant), so Paul referred to himself as a doulos repeatedly (see Romans 1:1; 2 Corinthians 2:45; Galatians 1:10; Philippians 1:1).

In first century society, people would know precisely what was characteristic of a "proper" slave: absolute submission to the master (see, for example, Ephesians 6:5-8); hence, the allusion to a "slave to sin" or a "slave to Christ" communicated powerfully to people. Paul taught that earthly status as slave or free had no eternal meaning, "For he who was called in the Lord while a slave, is the Lord’s freedman; likewise he who was called while free, is Christ’s slave" (1 Corinthians 7:22).

The Roman emperors were able to maintain order in the provinces primarily through military might, but such practices carried risks in the capital itself. When Gaius Caesar (nicknamed Caligula, "little boots") came to power in A.D. 37 after a reign of terror sanctioned by his predecessor, Tiberius (14-37), he enjoyed he support of the Praetorian Guard. The first months of Caligula's reign were characterized by a magnanimity that brought hope to the city. But the emperor emerged from an illness a virtual madman; displayed erratic, often murderous behavior; and was murdered by a member of the Guard in the fifth year of his reign.

As emperors became less enamored with military control of the Roman populace they turned to more effective means—public works and entertainment. Many emperors, most notably Claudius (41-54), Trajan (98-117), and Hadrian (117-138) embarked on ambitious building campaigns in both the city and the provinces—aqueducts, monuments, temples, baths, theaters, stadiums, agoras, and other buildings.

The aqueduct of Claudius, on the Palatine Hill, improved the delivery of water to the city www.bibleplaces.com

The Colosseum, completed in 82, seated 50,000 for various contests, including naval re-enactments. www.bibleplaces.com

Trajan's column (113), the centerpiece of Trajan's Forum, celebrated his military victories

The Pantheon, reconstructed in 128, a temple to all gods, is the best preserved ancient Roman building. www.bibleplaces.com

Chariot-racing and gladiatorial contests, familiar to movie-goers from Ben Hur and The Gladiator, were the most ubiquitous forms of entertainment and successful practitioners were the Roman Idols of their day. Often beginning as slaves of wealthy sponsors, charioteers and gladiators could win their freedom, substantial fortunes, and entry into high Roman society.
The extent to which public entertainment pervaded Roman life is evidenced by the fact that there were no less than 179 holidays during one year of Claudius' reign. Karl Marx claimed that "religion is the opiate of the masses," but religion was not the tranquilizer of choice with the Roman emperors! In addition to a regular schedule at the Circus and the Colosseum, emperors frequently sponsored special Olympic-style games, sometimes including dramatic competitions alongside athletic events. Emperor Nero (54-68) particularly enjoyed the dramatic presentations and occasionally took to the stage himself, contributing to the legend that he "fiddled while Rome burned." In fact, Nero was not in the capital at the onset of the Great Fire of A.D. 62, but he apparently did mark the event with a dramatic recitation of the fall of Troy.

The Church

The origin of the ekklesia in Rome is not known, but we know several things from Scripture:

1. There were "visitors from Rome" in Jerusalem on the Day of Pentecost, when the Holy Spirit came to Jesus' disciples (see Acts 2:1-10).
2. Andronicus and Junia(s), residents of Rome greeted in Paul's letter, were "in Christ before (him)" (Romans 16:5). Paul's Damascus Road conversion occurred approximately three years after the Resurrection of Christ, placing the conversion of Andronicus and Junia in the early- to mid-30's).
3. Aquila and Priscilla were among the Jews expelled from Rome by order of Emperor Claudius in about A.D. 49 (Acts 18:1-4). The Roman historian Suetonius wrote that Claudius' order resulted from "Jews constantly (making} disturbances at the instigation of Chrestus" (Lives of the Caesars). Many interpreters have concluded that "Chrestus" is a misspelling of "Christus" and that the "disturbances" represented the kinds of conflicts between Jews and Christians that are described in Acts.
4. Paul had a great desire to bring the Gospel to Rome based on Christ's commission to him:
   "After I have been (to Jerusalem), I must also see Rome" (Acts 19:21a).
   "So, for my part, I am eager to preach the gospel to you also who are in Rome" (Romans 1:15).
   "But on the night immediately following (Paul's hearing before Lysias), the Lord stood at his side and said, 'Take courage; for as you have solemnly witnessed to My cause at Jerusalem, so you must witness at Rome also'" (Acts 21:11)
5. Paul was escorted to Rome after a hearing in Jerusalem when he cited his Roman citizenship. He spent two years there under house arrest (Acts 28:11-31).
6. Some biblical scholars believe that Peter's reference to "she who is in Babylon" (1 Peter 5:13) refers to the church (she) in Rome (comparing Rome to the similarly-excessive city of Babylon).

Legend suggests that Peter first visited Rome as early as A.D. 41-42, but that seems unlikely since Luke, despite his close association with Paul, could hardly have failed to mention such a momentous trip in his report on the events in the early church (Acts of the Apostles). More compelling is the legend that Peter went to Rome either while Paul was imprisoned and shortly thereafter, and that he was crucified upside down there. St. Peter's Cathedral is said to be built above his grave.

Paul wrote his most thorough theological statement to the church in Rome, probably a reflection of the importance Paul placed on the imperial capital, and culminated the letter with by far his longest set of personal greetings to Christians. Some biblical scholars express doubt that Romans 16 was part of Paul's original letter, basing their arguments on the fact that Paul had not yet visited Rome when he wrote the letter. Romans 16 is therefore attributed to the Ephesian church, one scholar doubting that Aquila and Priscilla would be in Rome so soon after being in Corinth.

In reality, Romans 16 makes perfect sense. Not having actually been to Rome, it would be reasonable for Paul to try to connect with the Christians there by giving personal greetings and commendations. If so, he probably got the information he needed from his fellow-workers Aquila and Priscilla. After Claudius died suddenly (probably poisoned), Nero became emperor and lifted Claudius' ban of Jews. Paul employed native missionaries on occasion (e.g., Epaphras to Colossae) and planted Aquila and Priscilla as an "advance party" in Ephesus while he returned to Antioch (Acts 18:21). When he returned to Ephesus, it is perfectly reasonable to assume that he might have sent Aquila and Priscilla back to Rome to establish a beachhead in anticipation of his planned visit (Acts 19:21).

Following the Great Fire of Rome in A.D. 62, when a substantial portion of the city was destroyed or damaged, persistent rumors blamed Emperor Nero. His new wife, Poppaea Sabina, perhaps a Jewish sympathizer, may have planted the idea that the Christians were responsible. Whatever the origin, Nero was all-too-happy to divert attention to scapegoats, although the testimony of Roman historian Tacitus suggests that he took matters too far for even Roman sensitivities:

The actions of Nero represent the first of 10 major persecutions of Christians that reached their height in the reign of Diocletian (303-311). While Tacitus' depiction of Nero's tortures are certainly gruesome, this was probably the smallest of the ten, being limited to an almost certainly small Rome church (despite Tacitus' probably hyperbolic claim of "multitudes").

In large measure, it was Christian rejection of social customs that marked the group for persecution. Christians refused to celebrate Roman holidays and avoided the public games and spectacles, and they scoffed at the idea that the emperors were gods. In addition, their own actions were frequently misunderstood. The use of the terms "brother" and "sister" combined with the claim of (agape) love and perhaps particularly the "holy kiss" led to charges of incest. Rumors that Christians ate the flesh and drank the blood of their fallen leader led to suspicion of cannibalism. The fact that many Christian met secretly at night, combined with the paranoia of Roman emperors, made them an easy target.

The Roman church itself displayed a remarkable diversity, as displayed in Romans 16:1-15. The 27 individuals include those with Jewish (Mary), Greek (Aquila), Latin (Philologus), and Persian (Persis) names. There is evidence that they represent the spectrum of social classes. Aquila and Prisca were freed trade workers. Urbanus is a very common Roman slave name. Ampliatus is believed to have been a member of the Aurelian family that later produced two emperors (Marcus Aurelius and Commodius). Their groups were both heterogeneous—the house church of Aquila and Prisca (vv. 3-5) and that of Philologus and Julia, Nereus and his sister, and Olympas (v.15)—and homogeneous—Asyncritus, Phlegon, Hermes, Patrobas, Hermas and the brethren with them (v. 14).

Paul wrote his letter to the Romans from Corinth in about A.D. 57. Just five years later, they experienced the grotesque tortures Tacitus described. We know that Aquila and Prisca had returned to Ephesus by then (see 2 Timothy 4:19), but how many of the brothers and sisters named in Romans 16 were devoured by wild dogs, crucified, or burned for their faith?

Rome remains the most materially religious city in the world. Cathedrals and chapels dot almost every downtown street. Likenesses of emperors, now relegated to museums, have been replaced with religious statuary. The Empire may be gone, but the influence of Rome—through the Roman Catholic Church—extends to every corner of the world. Through a hierarchical structure that is remarkably similar to that of Roman government, the Roman Catholic Church continues to rule (or at least, to try to) the hearts and minds of millions of people, and for all its errors and excesses, there is no questions that the Roman Catholic Church has been a force for charity, love, and faith throughout the centuries.

What lessons does the early Roman church offer us today?

If the Pax Romana is viewed as primarily a communications revolution—a time when communications between peoples and place was enhanced by relatively safe travel and a virtually universal language—we can examine subsequent communication revolutions that, like the first century Roman Empire, enhance the opportunities for believers to spread the Gospel.

In 1436, Johannes Gutenberg, a German goldsmith, invented the printing press with replaceable wooden or metal letters. Over the next 14 years, Gutenberg experimented with his invention, and in 1450, he obtained financial backing from businessman Johannes Fust to start a printing business with a large press. The first product of this business was the now-famous Gutenberg Bible, which was first published on September 30, 1452. For the first time, the Bible ceased to be the exclusive province of the Catholic clergy. Gutenberg's Bible was in Latin, but printed vernacular translations followed: Martin Luther's German New Testament in 1522 and William Tyndale's English New Testament in 1526. In 1535, the Coverdale Bible became the first complete English Bible. The mass-produced, vernacular Bibles were both products of and contributors to the Protestant Reformation.
In the 20th century, the inventions of radio and television became the next great communications revolution of the modern era. Whatever one may conclude about televised religion, there is no question that the broadcast allies of Billy Graham and other preachers contributed to the spread of evangelicalism.

Now we have entered into what many have termed the post-modern era, and the accompanying communication revolution lies in the Internet. The instant I "publish" this modest work through InJesus.com every couple of weeks, it arrives at your computer virtually instantaneously, and there are thousands of similar publications speeding through binary pathways. Again, one may question the value of such ubiquity since there is at least as much misinformation out there as reliable information, but certainly the opportunity to spread God's Word in a revolutionary new way is profound. To my knowledge, ET&N is distributed in 16 different countries and my website has experienced visits from 162 countries as of today, but these are very modest numbers compared to some of the major websites like Crosswalk, GospelCom, Focus on the Family, and Christianity Today!

The imagery of slavery common in the Bible is largely lost on today's Bible-reader. In the West, at least, slavery has virtually disappeared, which is obviously a good thing, but our unfamiliarity with the conditions and psychology of slavery may rob us of deep Scriptural significance. When Jesus says we are slaves to sin, we simply may not appreciate the helplessness of our condition. A better modern corollary may be addiction, with which many of us are all too familiar. Even that, however, fails to grasp the full impact of slavery.

On the other hand, we can certainly relate to the distraction of entertainment employed by the Roman emperors. Claudius may have sponsored 179 holidays, but we have 365 days of almost infinite entertainment choices. Roman entertainment was meant to placate and control the masses, diverting their attention from the meaninglessness of their lives. In presenting the vicarious violence of the gladiatorial contests, emperors hoped to distract the citizenry from directing their dissatisfaction at them. The nature of the entertainment — sometimes violent, sometimes licentious, sometimes thrilling — reflected something about the nature of Roman society and its values. Roman entertainment was one part manipulation and one part reflection.

The same can be said of today's American entertainment. It is no longer government-controlled, but it is a clear reflection of the ideological battleground in our country. Our government may make and execute our laws, but our entertainment industry is shaping our values. Long gone are the days when "Father Knows Best" and twin beds for Ozzie & Harriet. Not satisfied with merely reflecting common values, the entertainment industry proudly "pushes the envelope," and Sex in the City and Desperate Housewives (not to mention the host of copycats that will appear next television season) become runaway hits. Even the shows with a spiritual component are simply feel-good placebos like Touched by an Angel, innocuous theologies like Joan of Arcadia, or hopelessly confused eschatologies like Revelations.

The first century Christians were viewed as social deviants for their rejection of Roman entertainment, but how many 21st century American Christians are contributing to the popularity of the more morally deviant television shows and movies? Their popularity surely belies the surveys that suggest 80% of Americans consider themselves Christians. Groups like the Southern Baptists try to organize boycotts of the worst offenders, but how many boycotts did the first century ekklesia organize? It was not organizational pressure that distinguished the early ekklesia, it was individual conscience.

Don't get me wrong—I'm probably as guilty as many Christians of supporting less-than-uplifting entertainment, and since I've never even seen Sex in the City or Desperate Housewives, I may not be qualified to comment, but I would welcome more appropriate television and movies. But maybe that's just the problem—I'm too interested in being entertained in the first place! There is nothing inherently wrong with entertainment, of course; after all, Jesus went to parties. What the history of the early church teaches us, however, is that, in honoring God, Christians will think, look, and act differently—so much so that sometimes we'll be outside of prevailing cultural norms.

The church of Rome can teach us many other things—diversity of individuals and groups, the dedication to working to further the cause of Christ, courage in the face of opposition, for example. But Rome and the Roman Empire also teaches us about using the communication opportunities God provides through human invention (Pax Romana, printing press, television, Internet); the value of culturally-meaningful imagery in communicating God's message; and the place of entertainment in the life of a Christian.

From Jim in Texas:

I enjoyed your essay on Rome. Your comments on entertainment brought to remembrance discussions I've had with brethren on the topic, "Can God be entertained?" Entertainment in our culture seems to me to have an increasingly narrow meaning of pure personal sensory self indulgence. Yet I still hear occasionally someone say, "that is an entertaining thought," or "I recently read a most entertaining book." Certainly the Holy Bible is, in fact, a book. I am entertained when I read it. But that entertainment is definitely on a different and higher plane (seeking the unseen) than merely self indulgence, or is it? Shouldn't Christians be indulged in spiritual matters? Most Christians would probably be loathed to describe a great sermon as "entertainment." But too often we can hear "that sermon wasn't good, or was too shallow, or didn't do anything for me." Are they suggesting that they weren't sufficiently entertained? Certainly God has emotions - pleased, anger, joy, wrath, sorrow. Does he find a righteous life, or one who loves (agape) one's fellow man, or one's wife as Christ loved the church as entertainment? What would be acceptable entertainment for a holy God, assuming God can and is "entertained." Some bristle at the thought that God can be entertained, and use every word they can think of to describe God's reaction to a Godly life, short of entertained! When we began using a praise team composed of some of our most gifted singers, some cried "we are not hear to be entertained." Was God entertained in the Temple when He prescribed choirs and instruments in the temple worship? To me, there are fewer things I find more entertaining than seeing someone "caught into the 7th heaven" during a soul touching worship service. The sad thing for me is to see someone sitting next to them seemingly bored with the whole worship experience. I guess that it is just not their type of self indulged "entertainment."

Unsure about or don’t agree with something in Ekklesia Then & Now? First, be a Berean (Acts 17:10-11). If you still disagree, post a message so we can all share in the discussion!

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© Richard M. Soule, 2005 Unlimited copy and distribution permission is hereby granted on the condition that this copyright notice is included.
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Unless otherwise noted, Scripture taken from the NEW AMERICAN STANDARD BIBLE, © 1960, 1962, 1963, 1968, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1975, 1977, by The Lockman Foundation. Used by permission.