Number 73 | May 2, 2006
Number 73 | May
2, 2006
Early Church Fathers: Justin Martyr, Heretic?
[Note: this is an unusually long installment of ET&N, both because Justin Martyr is no simple topic and because of the numerous (and sometimes lengthy) responses to the previous issue (Psalms, Hymns and Spiritual Songs, ET&N 72).]
This is the third in a continuing Ekklesia Then & Now series on the influential writers of the pre-Nicene period of the church (before 325 A.D.). Previous installments were an Introduction (ET&N 30) and Clement (70) of Rome. The purpose of the series is to examine the writings of these individuals to better understand the context of the early church and determine what lessons they hold for today's Christian. Additional installments of this series will include Tertullian, Ignatius, Clement of Alexandria, Cyprian, Novatian, Ignatius, Irenæus, Origin, and others.
Most modern Christians may at some time have heard of Justin Martyr, but they know little of his life or influence. In fact, I suspect many think the word "martyr" came from Justin, while it is the opposite. "Martyr" comes from the Greek word, μαρτυς (martus), meaning a witness. It is used frequently in the New Testament; for example, "Church leaders, I am writing to encourage you. I too am a leader, as well as a witness (martus) to Christ's suffering, and I will share in his glory when it is shown to us" (1 Peter 5:1). It came to mean one who died for his or her faith because this served as the ultimate witness.
Justin died for his faith in Rome when he affirmed his Christianity and refused to worship pagan idols. As one of the earliest and most notable to suffer such a fate, he became known as "Justin Martyr," but during his life he was known more as a philosopher, teacher, and apologist--another word that deserves some explanation. An apology has nothing to do with the more common modern meaning of expressing regret for an error or discourtesy. Rather, apology derives from the Greek word απολογια (apologia), which means a plea, an answer (for self), clearing of self, or defense. There are eight instances of apologia in the New Testament, seven by Paul (Acts 22:1*, 25:16; 1 Corinthians 9:3; 2 Corinthians 7:11; Philippians 1:7, 16; and 2 Timothy 4:16), but it is Peter's use that is most relevant to apologetics: "but in your hearts regard Christ the Lord as holy, always being prepared to make a defense (apologia) to anyone who asks you for a reason for the hope that is in you" (1 Peter 3:15).
Knowing that Justin is a celebrated teacher, apologist, and martyr, you may be surprised to learn that some of the views reflected in his writings would be considered heresy (another word that requires defining) in modern orthodox Christianity. The word "heresy" derives from the Greek word αιρεσς (hairesis), meaning a choice. It is used in the New Testament to mean a sect, division, or faction. Heresy is very much in the eye of the beholder in that differing opinions by two people are heretical to each other. Heresy eventually became an ecclesiastical crime as the Roman Catholic Church applied clamps on "correct" doctrine. Many other Christian groups do the same today (although they don't usually burn "heretics"). For more on orthodox vs. heretical doctrine, see ET&N 8, "False Doctrine."
Life of Justin
Justin was born in about 100 A.D. in the city of Neapolis (modern Nablus, a city of over 100,000 under Palestinian Authority about 40 miles north of Jerusalem in the West Bank), which had been founded by Vespasian near the site of Shechem around the time of the destruction of the Jerusalem Temple. Shechem is mentioned in the Old Testament as the place where Abram built an altar after God appeared to him and promised the land of Canaan to his offspring (Genesis 12:5-7). Abram's grandson Jacob bought a piece of land there and built another altar (Genesis 33:18-20), leading to one of the less uplifting events in Jewish dealings with other people—the deceitful revenge taken upon natives of Shechem by Jacob's sons after the rape of their sister, Dinah (Genesis 34).
Later, Shechem was also the site of the revolt of the northern tribes against Solomon's son Rehoboam when he ignored the advice of elders to act with mercy (1 Kings 12), leading to the split kingdom. After the Assyrian conquest (722 BC), Shechem lost its importance, but it regained its status during the Hellenistic period after being re-established by the Samaritans, who built a temple on nearby Mount Gerizim. The Hasmonean ruler John Hyracanus (134-104 B.C.) destroyed Shechem, and the site lay in ruins until Vespasian.
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While Justin was born in Samaria, his family appears to have been Roman colonists in the newly re-established city of Neapolis (Greek, new city). Both his name and his father's (Priscus) are Latin, while his grandfather's (Bacchius) is Greek. In his writings, Justin testifies to being uncircumcised (Dialogue with Trypho 29) and having grown up with a Greek education (Dialogue 2). In his search for truth, Justin encountered Stoic, Peripatetic, Pythagorean, and Platonic teachers. He left Stoicism when his teacher claimed the knowledge of God was unnecessary; Peripateticism because his teacher demanded a fee, and Pythagoreanism because he was unwilling to meet the teacher's demand that he learn music, astronomy, and geometry first (ibid). He became quite enamored with Platonism because "the contemplation of ideas furnished my mind with wings" and as he "made the greatest improvements daily," he "expected forthwith to look upon God," which he viewed as the "end of Plato's philosophy" (ibid).
Justin's Conversion
It was at this point that he encountered, probably in Ephesus, a rather mysterious unnamed old man, who challenged his Platonic views and introduced him to Christ Jesus through the writings of the Old Testament prophets whom he extols as "more ancient," "filled with the Holy Spirit," and "witnesses to the truth above all demonstration" (Dialogue 7). It seems to have been the age of the Old Testament prophesies and their accuracy concerning the appearance of the Messiah which convinced Justin to convert to Christianity.
Justin speaks of his baptism (Dialogue 29), but he does not describe the circumstances of the event. It is reasonable to assume, however, that it came shortly after the discussion with the old man. "Straightway a flame was kindled in my soul," he writes. "And a love of the prophets, and of those men who of friends of Christ, possessed me...I found this philosophy alone to be safe and profitable" (Dialogue 8).
Subsequently, Justin taught for a time on two occasions in the home of Martinus in Rome, a well-known Christian meeting place, and may have established a school there. Eusebius, the fourth century church historian, wrote that "...Justin was especially prominent in those days [during the bishoprics of Pius (140-155) and Anicetus (155-166). In the guise of a philosopher he preached the divine word, and contended for the faith in his writings." Justin may also have traveled extensively, teaching in other major cities as other philosophic Christian teachers did.
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The Martyrdom of Justin
Eventually, he was charged in Rome with and confessed readily to being a Christian. In The Martyrdom of the Holy Martyrs, an early document generally considered genuine and accurate, Justin's succinct description of Christian testimony is preserved:
"...we worship the God of the Christians, whom we reckon to be one from the beginning, the maker and fashioner of the whole creation, visible and invisible; and the Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God, who had also been preached beforehand by the prophets as about to be present with the race of men, the herald of salvation and teacher of good disciples. And I, being a man, think that what I can say is insignificant in comparison with His boundless divinity, acknowledging a Certain prophetic power, since it was prophesied concerning Him of who now I say that He is the Son of God. For I know that of old the prophets foretold His appearance among men" (Martyrdom I).
Rusticus, prefect of Rome, completes his examination of Justin by asking, "Are you not, then, a Christian?" to which Justin relies simply, "Yes, I am a Christian." Rusticus then examines Justin's students—Chariton, Charito (a woman), Euelpistus (an imperial servant), Hierax, Paeon, and Liberianus. Each repeats Justin's testimony.
Rusticus warns Justin that he will be scourged and executed and asks, with apparent sarcasm, "Do you suppose, then, that you will ascend into heaven and receive some recompense?"
"I do not suppose it," Justin replies. "But I know and am fully persuaded of it."
Rusticus then commands the group to sacrifice to the Roman gods under threat of death. As one, they reply, "Do what you will, for we are Christians, and do not sacrifice to idols." The degree to which Christian executions was commonplace is indicated by the author's comment that Justin and his students were taken "to the accustomed place," where they were beheaded. The date of Justin's martyrdom is not certain, but fell during the reign of Marcus Aurelius (161-180), probably around 165.
Justin's Writings
While Justin is so celebrated as a Christian martyr that the word has become an appendage to his name, his most significant accomplishment lies in the philosophical teachings reflected in his writings. According to Eusebius, these included Justin's "discourse of his in defense of our doctrine addressed to Antoninus Pious, and to his sons, and to the Roman senate" (First Apology), his Second Apology, a Treatise against Heresy (from which Irenæus quotes), two works against the Greeks (Discourse and Refutation), The Sovereignty of God, The Psaltes, On the Soul, and Dialogue against the Jews. Eusebius adds that "a great many other works of his are still in the hands of many of the brethren" (Eusebius, Church History 4.18).
Of these only his Apology (the so-called Second Apology is really an appendix to his earlier apology) and Dialogue against the Jews (aka Dialogue with Trypho) have survived. It is particularly regrettable, perhaps, that Justin's On the Sovereignty of God is lost since Eusebius reports that Justin proved "not only from our Scriptures, but also from the books of the Greeks." It would have given us even more insight into Justin's use of Greek philosophy. Because of the extant works, Justin is known as one of the earliest Christian apologists.
Justin's Apology - read the entire text here ("First Apology") and here ("Second Apology")
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While Justin endeavors to refute specific charges against Christians, three broad themes run through his Apology:
Justin was fighting against the suspicion that Christians were guilty of the crimes of atheism, immorality, and disloyalty, and that merely admitting to being a Christian represented confession to these crimes. He tells the Emperor that Christians "are most excellent people" (1 Apology 4), but admits to would not be just to be acquitted merely by claiming to be a Christian. Consequently, he asks the Emperor to "pass judgment after an accurate and searching investigation" (1 Apology 2). Justin wants the doctrine and practices of Christians to be brought into the light of day, where they can be judged on their own merits, rather than on innuendo. From this, one has to wonder if perhaps Christians were overly secretive about their beliefs and practices. While this is understandable given the persecutions that occurred during the reigns of Nero (54-68), Domitian (81-96), and Trajan (98-117), excessive caution may have contributed to the general suspicion.
In presenting the virtues of Christianity, Justin cites Jesus' teaching on chastity (1 Apology 15), patience and servanthood (16). and civic responsibility (17). He quotes from what he calls "Memoirs of the Apostles," although he seems to have been the first to use the term "gospel" in the plural (66). The specific source of Justin's quotes is not always clear, but we know that all four of the canonical gospels were in circulation by his time, and he also quotes the apocryphal Gospel of Peter (see ET&N 39, Apocryphal Gospels).
One particularly notable feature of Justin's apologetic arguments lies in his contention that the ideas of Christianity are imperfectly mimicked in the teachings of Greek philosophers, particularly Plato. According to Leslie William Barnard (Ancient Christian Writers: St. Justin Martyr, The First and Second Apologies, Paulist Press, 1997), Justin "retained the Middle Platonic idea of God as unknowable and transcendent, the Unmoved First Cause, Nameless and Unutterable, Unbegotten...incapable of coming unto direct contact with any of His creatures" (p. 16). It was only through the logos--with descriptions strikingly similar to those in John's Gospel--but understood in the light of the Old Testament "Word of God" and Greek philosophy.
Justin teaches of logos spermatikos (a Stoic term with different meaning) as the seed of that Word that is given to all people. Through the partial revelation of the logos spermatikos, things good and noble became evident to some, even before Christianity, but the logos is complete and perfect only in Christ Jesus. This allowed Justin to adopt anything worthwhile into Christianity as a reflection, albeit incomplete or imperfect, of the logos.
Hence, he claims that the philosophers took material from the Prophets. In pointing out Man's ability to choose between good and evil, for example, he claims that Plato's line, "The blame is his who chooses, and God is blameless," is taken "from the Prophet Moses" (1 Apology 44). "Whatever both philosophers and poets have said concerning the immortality of the soul, or punishments after death, or contemplation of things heavenly, or doctrine of the like kind," Justin continues. "They have received such suggestions from the prophets..." (ibid).
The notion that spiritual ideas are available to each human being is not so innovative as it may seem at first. Solomon testified that "(God) has put eternity into man's heart" (Ecclesiastes 3:11). In his letter to the church in Rome, Paul said, "(God's) invisible attributes, namely, his eternal power and divine nature, have been clearly perceived, ever since the creation of the world, in the things that have been made. So they are without excuse" (Romans 1:19-20).
For Paul, it was Man's own unrighteousness and stubborn refusal to see what was evident that lead him astray, but Justin blamed the work of demons. Like contemporary Jews, Justin believed that fallen angels, consorting with human women, produced demons (an interpretation of Genesis 6:2-5) who subsequently multiplied "to form a whole army of evil powers that was seeking to bring the human race into subjection" (Barnard pg. 17). He blamed these demons for the perversion of the logos spermatikos, including caricatures of Christian practices like the Eucharist and baptism.
Justin's Dialogue with Trypho, the Jew - Read the entire text here
Scholars are divided over whether or not Justin's Dialogue represents a real conversation. The majority seem to hold that some conversation occurred between Justin and Trypon, a Jewish leader, probably in Ephesus, but since Justin's wrote the work many years after the alleged event, it is quite likely that Justin embellished it substantially. It is a lengthy, fascinating but sometimes confusing work. If this issue of ET&N were not already lengthy enough, I would cite some features of it.
Justin's Unorthodox Beliefs
Even though Justin is embraced by most modern Christian groups (he is a "Saint" of both the Roman Catholic and Orthodox church), some of the beliefs reflected in his writings are definitely not consistent with modern mainstream Christian beliefs, although it is sometimes difficult in the case of his Apology to know how much is designed specifically to appeal to pagan attitudes. Perhaps, like Paul (cf 1 Corinthians 9:19-23), Justin believed in becoming like a Greek in order that some might be saved.
Worship of angels. Ironically, one of the most serious charges against Christians was that they were atheists (because they did not worship the traditional Roman gods). In refuting this accusation, Justin admits "we are atheists, so far as (demons and idols) are concerned" (1 Apology 6), but he testifies that Christians worship "the most true God," the Son, and "the prophetic Spirit" (ibid). However, he adds that Christians also worship "the host of other good angels who follow and are made like to Him (Jesus)" (ibid), adding elsewhere "that there are angels who always exist, and are never reduced to that form out of which they sprang" (Dialogue 128).
Doctrine of works. Justin never directly quotes or expressly mentions Paul in any of his extant works. Some scholars have suggested that this may be because of his opposition to Marcion, who used some of Paul's writing in his competing version of Christianity. Marcion (the subject of a later installment in this series) could not reconcile the God of the Old Testament with the God who sent Christ to the world; hence, he created a "Bible" that excluded all of the New Testament and included only edited versions of Luke's gospel and seven of Paul's letters. Since Justin taught in Rome at about the same time Marcion did and was vehemently opposed to him, these scholars believe that Justin avoided Paul to prevent any association with Marcionites.
Whatever the reason, Justin seems to have missed or ignored Paul's strong message of the gospel of grace. Instead, his writings are full of salvation by works. For example:
We might understand Justin's focus on behavior in his Apology, since he is trying to refute the charge that Christians are immoral, but when he mentions grace in the Dialogue with Trypho, it appears only to give people the ability to cleanse themselves: "...we have by the grace of our Jesus, according to His Father's will, stripped ourselves of all those filthy wickednesses with which we were imbued" (Diaglogue 116).
Creation. In what might be a somewhat lesser error, Justin also taught that "(God) in the beginning did of His goodness, for man's sake, create all things out of unformed matter" (1 Apology 10). This concept is one from Platonism and held by some Gnostic groups. Irenaeus (another future subject in this series) wrote that Valentinians "hold the Creator formed the world out of previously existing matter" (Against Heresies 2.14). Contrary to Justin's teaching, the Bible clearly states that all things were made "by the word of the Lord" (Psalm 33:6).
Circumcision. Justin tells Trypho that "we too would observe the fleshly circumcision, and the Sabbaths, and in short all the feasts, if we did not know for what reason they were enjoined you,--namely, on account of your transgressions and the hardness of your hearts" (Dialogue 18). Justin is wrong about circumcision, the Sabbath, and feasts, but I'll detail the counter-evidence for circumcision only. Paul tells us that the sign of circumcision was given to Abraham specifically because of his faith in God (Romans 4).
Justin has a few other odd (and unbiblical) notions. He refers to "a certain mysterious import" of the "eighth day" (Dialogue 24) apparently misunderstanding the traditional eighth day circumcision of Jewish babies (cf Luke 1:59, Philippians 3:5) and confusing it with the Sabbath. He also claims that "a fire was kindled in the Jordan" when Jesus stepped into the water to be baptized by John (Dialogue 88). There is no biblical account of such an event and although perhaps Justin meant it symbolically (the beginning of Jesus' ministry), it is always dangerous to add personal accounts to the biblical text. As far as I know, this fire in the Jordan is unique to Justin. Finally, according to Irenaeus (who admires him), Justin wrote that "before the Lord's appearance Satan never dared to blaspheme God, inasmuch as he did not yet know his own sentence..." This too appears to be an invention of Justin.
In some circles, it is fashionable these days to speak of the diversity of early Christian beliefs and practices, and it is true that there were many flavors of ancient Christianity. Within the first three hundred years after Christ, the church was peppered with Judaizers, Gnostics, Marcionites, Arians, Monarchists, Ebionites, and Montanists, to name a few. With the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls (1947), the Nag Hammadi library (1945), and more recently, the Gospel of the Savior and The Gospel of Judas (1970's), interest in these Christian and quasi-Christians sects, successfully refuted by orthodox leaders, has exploded. Books by such academics as Elaine Pagels of Princeton University (Beyond Belief) and Bart Ehrman of the University of North Carolina (Lost Christianities: The Battle for Scripture and Faiths We Never Knew) question the truth of orthodox Christian faith.
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Adding to these legitimate observations of diversity are the fanciful speculations of Michael Baigent (Holy Blood, Holy Grail, the theoretical basis of Dan Brown's Da Vinci Code and The Jesus Papers: Exposing the Greatest Cover-Up in History, published last month) and James Tabor (The Jesus Dynasty: The Hidden History of Jesus, His Royal Family, and the Birth of Christianity), both of which suggest that Jesus had earthly dynastic ambitions. The editorial description of The Jesus Papers on amazon.com reveals the presumptive nature of these works: "In The Jesus Papers, Michael Baigent reveals the truth about Jesus's life and crucifixion." U.S. News and World Report gave Tabor extraordinary cover treatment ("The Kingdom of Christ: A bold new take on the historical Jesus raises questions about a centuries-long quest," April 17, 2006).
The tactic employed by the secular media is to present these competing ideas without pointing out that, in many cases, they are mutually exclusive. Holy Blood, Holy Grail, for example, cannot be true if the Gospel of Judas is. Perhaps Justin was correct in asserting that demons were behind the early misrepresentations of Christianity, and perhaps, having been held at bay for centuries, demons are now deceiving the media into trying simply to create confusion about the nature and mission of Christ Jesus.
One of the most common suggestions that accompany challenges to the validity of the New Testament canon is that it was the result of some vast "right-wing" (orthodox) conspiracy, but while it is true that some diversity in early Christianity disappeared as the church progressed, it is certainly not true that all questionable doctrines were obliterated. In fact, the writings of Justin, one of the most celebrated early writers and martyrs, reflect some ideas that most Christians now would consider incomplete or erroneous. This clearly demonstrates the fact that the early church did not engage in a genocidal campaign to remove all "minority opinions" from some monolithic set of proscribed beliefs.
The real danger posed by these books and the accompanying media hysteria is that the faith of some Christians may well be skaken. If there were validity in the competing theories, it would lead to one of three conclusions:
There is really no legitimate way to incorporate the ideas of Baigent and Tabor, not to mention the ancient apocryphal works, into historic Christianity. In our post-modern, relativistic, tolerant, multi-cultural, politically-correct society, some who call themselves Christians will undoubtedly try, but as for me, I believe God exists and has faithfully presented and preserved His message to mankind in the canon of the Bible.
These developments also reveal two opposing phenomenon: (1) the interest in Jesus in this country is at an incredibly high level (particularly when you consider the success of Mel Gibson's Passion of the Christ) and (2) a multi-faceted attack on the orthodox understandings of Jesus presented in the New Testament threatens the future of the historic church. Why bring all of this up in this installment of the Ekklesia Then & Now early church fathers series? Because these men faced a similarly multi-faceted challenge—from both inside and outside the church. Perhaps by understanding how these men successfully navigated the treacherous waters of the first three Christian centuries, we can gain valuable insights about how the church can survive today's challenges.
The barrage of current attacks on the nature of Jesus and the reliability of the canon makes it tempting to relate this activity to Paul's description of the coming of the lawless one: "Therefore God sends them a strong delusion, so that they may believe what is false, in order that all may be condemned who did not believe the truth but had pleasure in unrighteousness" (2 Thessalonians 2:11-12, emphasis mine). Certainly, the often mutually-exclusive, sensational claims spread by the media represent a strong delusion, and there are those who consequently believe what is false. I have heard of liberal churches who are studying Holy Blood, Holy Grail, the blasphemous non-fictional (remember, non-fictional does not mean true) basis for many of Dan Brown's theses in the Da Vinci Code, as a serious counterpart to canonical accounts.
The Da Vinci Code; Holy Blood, Holy Grail; The Jesus Papers; and The Jesus Dynasty represent delusions, but how effective they will be depends on (1) whether or not God sent them and (2) how consistently the church explains the truth. This past Sunday, as part of an ongoing series on Paul, I taught about the apostle's instructions to church leaders in 1 Timothy and Titus. False teaching is one of the primary themes of these letters, and Paul charges his protégés to protect the flock against such teachings (1 Timothy 1:3). He laid out the methods for doing so:
As the May 19 theatrical release of the Da Vinci Code nears, we who believe in the truths of the Bible and put our hope in the grace of God would do well to practice Paul's prescription. While Justin Martyr's errors (a tiny part of his teaching) did not threaten orthodox faith, those of many others over the centuries have, and the implications for a lost world are profound.
From Peter's instructions (1 Peter 3:15), apologetics--being prepared to give a reason for our hope--is the responsibility of every Christian. Justin's "heretical" views were not excised from the annals of Christianity--they are preserved and honored. His views upheld the essentials of Christianity--God as the omnipotent, omniscient, omnipresent Creator of the universe and Christ Jesus as His human incarnation who bore the sins of Mankind to satisfy our sentence of guilt and make possible a relationship with God. Furthermore, he retained his life-long loyalty to the orthodox church. The views of others that were rejected--and must continue to be categorically rejected--are those that deny these fundamental facts.
Unsure about or don’t agree with something in Ekklesia Then & Now? First, be a Berean (Acts 17:10-11). If you still disagree, post a message so we can all share in the discussion! You can also e-mail me, and if you choose to post, I probably won't distribute your post individually since that costs me money. Rather, I will copy your post to the "Discussion" section of the next issue.
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